{"id":12135,"date":"2026-11-03T11:08:08","date_gmt":"2026-11-03T10:08:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/hemera.e-declic.net\/?page_id=12135"},"modified":"2026-11-03T11:52:59","modified_gmt":"2026-11-03T10:52:59","slug":"space","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.hemera-rf.com\/en\/activities\/space\/","title":{"rendered":"Space"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"12135\" class=\"elementor elementor-12135 elementor-11420\" data-elementor-post-type=\"page\">\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1644837f e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-section hm-section e-1caa6bb7-3b9a \" data-id=\"1644837f\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"1644837f\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"1644837f\">\n    <div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-460dcdfc e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-inner e-460dcdfc-405753d \" data-id=\"460dcdfc\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"460dcdfc\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"460dcdfc\">\n    <div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-39f54c7 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div e-39f54c7-1f70740 \" data-id=\"39f54c7\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"39f54c7\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"39f54c7\">\n    \t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9c40270 table-matiere elementor-widget__width-inherit elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents\" data-id=\"9c40270\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;exclude_headings_by_selector&quot;:&quot;.hm-faq-container&quot;,&quot;no_headings_message&quot;:&quot;Aucun titre n\\u2019a \\u00e9t\\u00e9 trouv\\u00e9 sur cette page.&quot;,&quot;headings_by_tags&quot;:[&quot;h2&quot;,&quot;h3&quot;,&quot;h4&quot;,&quot;h5&quot;,&quot;h6&quot;],&quot;marker_view&quot;:&quot;numbers&quot;,&quot;minimize_box&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;minimized_on&quot;:&quot;tablet&quot;,&quot;hierarchical_view&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;min_height&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;min_height_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"table-of-contents.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__header-title\">\n\t\t\t\tTable of contents\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__9c40270\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Open table of contents\"><i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-chevron-down\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-toc__9c40270\" aria-expanded=\"true\" aria-label=\"Close table of contents\"><i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-chevron-up\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-toc__9c40270\" class=\"elementor-toc__body\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toc__spinner-container\">\n\t\t\t\t<i class=\"elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin eicon-loading\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-27c8d3ba e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content e-27c8d3ba-ac1e50f \" data-id=\"27c8d3ba\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"27c8d3ba\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"27c8d3ba\">\n    <div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-57a1cefd e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"57a1cefd\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"57a1cefd\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"57a1cefd\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"1053baaf\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1053baaf\">Space EMC and RF: controlling electromagnetic interactions to secure the mission<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4c44198d\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4c44198d\">In the space sector, electromagnetic compatibility and control of RF performance are essential to the correct operation of equipment, subsystems, satellites, launchers and payloads.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"6b38714f\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"6b38714f\">A space system brings together a large number of electronic and radio-frequency units in a highly integrated environment. On-board computers, power supplies, converters, control systems, transmitters, receivers and RF payloads must all be able to operate simultaneously without interfering with one another and without degrading mission performance.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"9f73028\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"9f73028\">The issues involved cover conducted and radiated emissions and susceptibility as well as transients, electrical interfaces, coupling between units and the performance of RF and microwave chains.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"269e9486\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"269e9486\">In telecommunications satellites, an additional challenge lies in the coexistence of high-power transmit signals and extremely sensitive receivers. Spurious emissions, harmonics and intermodulation phenomena, in particular PIM (Passive Intermodulation), then become key parameters of system performance.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"5f847f22\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"5f847f22\">ECSS standards, supplemented by the requirements of agencies, prime contractors and space programmes, provide the framework for design, qualification and validation activities.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1ba9382d\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1ba9382d\">HEMERA RF supports space industry players in defining and integrating EMC, RF and microwave test facilities, from equipment qualification through to the electromagnetic compatibility and RF performance challenges of complex systems.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4be3b3f2 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"4be3b3f2\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"4be3b3f2\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"4be3b3f2\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"2525ac0e\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2525ac0e\">From component to satellite: several levels of validation<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"5e15b364\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"5e15b364\">What sets the space sector apart is the need to control electromagnetic interactions at several different levels.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4e000785\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4e000785\">In particular, it is important to distinguish between:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7661d67c\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7661d67c\">Components and units \u2192 subsystems \u2192 platform and payload \u2192 integrated satellite<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"55ec8a88\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"55ec8a88\">Each level raises different issues.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"2315a86f\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2315a86f\">At the level of an electronic unit, the aim is in particular to verify its emissions and its susceptibility to disturbances.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"6fd51f2d\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"6fd51f2d\">When several units are assembled into a subsystem, their electrical interfaces, cabling, grounding, shielding and electromagnetic interactions also become decisive.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4b40bb33\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4b40bb33\">At the level of the complete satellite, the issue becomes a genuine system-level one: all units must be able to operate simultaneously without any conducted or radiated emission, harmonic, spurious signal or unwanted coupling compromising another function.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4e23cf80\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4e23cf80\">This approach is particularly important in space, because an anomaly that only appears once the satellite is in operation can be extremely difficult, or even impossible, to correct physically.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"698a4f4d\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"698a4f4d\">EMC must therefore be addressed from the design stage and then verified step by step throughout the integration and qualification phases.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6fde0b6f e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"6fde0b6f\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"6fde0b6f\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"6fde0b6f\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"2cf0a759\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2cf0a759\">Platform and payload: two complementary functions<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"72bb6e5a\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"72bb6e5a\">To understand the EMC and RF challenges of a satellite, it helps to distinguish between the platform and the payload.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"537f8b3d\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"537f8b3d\">The platform, or bus, groups together the functions needed to operate the satellite: power generation and distribution, thermal control, attitude and orbit control, on-board data handling, telemetry and telecommand, as well as various service functions.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4bc0a9ec\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4bc0a9ec\">The payload, for its part, performs the mission itself. Depending on the satellite, this may be telecommunications, Earth observation, navigation, meteorology, scientific instrumentation or other specialised missions.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7244aae9\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7244aae9\">From an electromagnetic point of view, these two assemblies must operate within a limited space while accommodating:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"hm-list e-paragraph-base e-default-span\" data-interaction-id=\"43a3c5a9\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"43a3c5a9\"><ul><li>digital electronics<\/li><li>power electronics<\/li><li>converters and power supplies<\/li><li>on-board computers<\/li><li>communication buses and interfaces<\/li><li>RF equipment<\/li><li>high-power transmitters<\/li><li>sensitive receivers<\/li><li>antennas and microwave chains.<\/li><\/ul><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"22818af5\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"22818af5\">Compatibility between the platform, the payload and the RF environment is therefore a major challenge in satellite integration.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1662043d e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"1662043d\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"1662043d\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"1662043d\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"32d1c791\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"32d1c791\">ECSS: the European framework for space projects<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4ea94e85\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4ea94e85\">In the European space sector, the ECSS (European Cooperation for Space Standardization) standards form a major reference framework for the design, development and qualification of space systems.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"5c9cf963\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"5c9cf963\">Rather than relying on a single test standard, EMC requirements form part of a broader engineering process covering the definition of the electromagnetic environment, the requirements applicable to units and subsystems, verification methods and the compatibility of the integrated system.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7f8ec80f\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7f8ec80f\">The applicable standards must always be determined according to the programme, the agency, the prime contractor, the mission and the qualification level concerned.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1b73b0e8\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1b73b0e8\">This logic is important: in space, EMC is not simply a matter of putting a unit through a series of tests at the end of development. It must be built into the electrical and RF architecture of the system from the design stage.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-67304dbb e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"67304dbb\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"67304dbb\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"67304dbb\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"18388242\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"18388242\">EMC qualification of electronic units and subassemblies<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7885b7f5\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7885b7f5\">At unit level, testing serves in particular to characterise the disturbances generated and to verify immunity or susceptibility to the environments to which the unit may be exposed.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1570cad9\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1570cad9\">Depending on programme requirements, testing may cover:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"hm-list e-paragraph-base e-default-span\" data-interaction-id=\"a16d9e8\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"a16d9e8\"><ul><li>conducted emissions<\/li><li>radiated emissions<\/li><li>conducted susceptibility<\/li><li>radiated susceptibility<\/li><li>electrical transients<\/li><li>power interfaces<\/li><li>cabling and communication lines<\/li><li>electromagnetic fields.<\/li><\/ul><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"2e4a1e8\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2e4a1e8\">As in the Defence and Aerospace sectors, the test setup must be sized according to the frequencies, levels, coupling methods and performance actually required by the programme.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5e638675 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"5e638675\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"5e638675\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"5e638675\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"5a322dc\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"5a322dc\">From unit qualification to whole-satellite compatibility<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"10587df4\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"10587df4\">A unit that meets its individual requirements does not automatically guarantee that the complete satellite will be electromagnetically compatible.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"41036d9b\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"41036d9b\">Integrating many units can reveal phenomena that were not necessarily visible during individual tests:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"hm-list e-paragraph-base e-default-span\" data-interaction-id=\"132561c9\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"132561c9\"><ul><li>cable-to-cable coupling<\/li><li>disturbances via power supplies<\/li><li>common-mode currents<\/li><li>radiation from digital equipment<\/li><li>interactions between converters and sensitive equipment<\/li><li>antenna-to-antenna coupling<\/li><li>harmonics<\/li><li>intermodulation products<\/li><li>spurious emissions in sensitive bands.<\/li><\/ul><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"487ee19e\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"487ee19e\">System-level EMC therefore consists in ensuring that the various units can operate simultaneously in their operational configurations.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7e40d193\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7e40d193\">Integration tests must then be designed around the satellite's actual architecture and operating modes that are representative of the mission.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-50cbe7b8 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"50cbe7b8\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"50cbe7b8\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"50cbe7b8\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"1a26714b\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1a26714b\">From extremely weak signals to high RF power<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"3aa8651c\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"3aa8651c\">Space has one notable feature: extremely different power levels can coexist within the same system.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"67b20da7\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"67b20da7\">A telecommunications satellite may, for example, combine high-power RF transmitters with receive chains designed to detect extremely weak signals.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"194fe51e\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"194fe51e\">This difference in level calls for particularly rigorous control of:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"hm-list e-paragraph-base e-default-span\" data-interaction-id=\"482231ca\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"482231ca\"><ul><li>spurious emissions<\/li><li>harmonics<\/li><li>intermodulation products<\/li><li>noise<\/li><li>RF leakage<\/li><li>coupling between chains<\/li><li>isolation between transmit and receive.<\/li><\/ul><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4ebf44ef\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4ebf44ef\">A disturbance that seems negligible compared with a transmitter's power can become significant once it falls within the band of a highly sensitive receiver.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7e5e5486\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7e5e5486\">This issue is the natural link between EMC and RF\/microwave engineering.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4d704043 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"4d704043\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"4d704043\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"4d704043\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"3c36d955\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"3c36d955\">RF payload and telecommunications<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4c0611f5\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4c0611f5\">For telecommunications satellites, the payload may include several RF and microwave chains handling the reception, processing, filtering, amplification and retransmission of signals.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"2a4ef7a5\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2a4ef7a5\">Characterising these chains may require measurements covering, in particular:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"hm-list e-paragraph-base e-default-span\" data-interaction-id=\"38a1f05f\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"38a1f05f\"><ul><li>RF power<\/li><li>frequencies<\/li><li>spectrum<\/li><li>gain<\/li><li>insertion loss<\/li><li>matching<\/li><li>isolation<\/li><li>harmonics<\/li><li>spurious emissions<\/li><li>intermodulation.<\/li><\/ul><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"3768911c\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"3768911c\">Depending on the application, these measurements may extend to microwave and millimetre-wave frequencies.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"2b8a17d\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2b8a17d\">The quality of the measurement chain itself becomes decisive when trying to characterise very low spurious levels.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6f80ab0c e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"6f80ab0c\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"6f80ab0c\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"6f80ab0c\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"2f79abf8\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2f79abf8\">PIM: when a passive component generates new frequencies<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"42782dc\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"42782dc\">PIM (Passive Intermodulation) is a particularly important phenomenon in high-power RF systems, and notably in certain telecommunications payloads.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"28f81681\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"28f81681\">The principle can be explained simply.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1ea561cd\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1ea561cd\">Imagine two RF carriers at frequencies <strong>f1<\/strong> and <strong>f2<\/strong> passing simultaneously through a passive component.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"5df36e9a\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"5df36e9a\">In a perfectly linear system, this component transmits both signals without creating any new frequencies.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"3e5f321a\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"3e5f321a\">In reality, however, a very slight non-linearity may exist at a connector, a metal contact, a cable, a filter, a mechanical assembly or an interface between materials.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1f3e83a9\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1f3e83a9\">This non-linearity can then mix the signals and generate new frequencies: intermodulation products.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7c484c19\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7c484c19\">Third-order products include, in particular:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"48a78f11\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"48a78f11\">2f1 \u2212 f2<br>2f2 \u2212 f1<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1644a7b2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1644a7b2\">The problem arises when one of these spurious products falls within a sensitive receive band.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"40c0022c\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"40c0022c\">The phenomenon can be summarised as follows:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"47b3c89d\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"47b3c89d\">Two high-power RF carriers \u2192 slight non-linearity in a passive element \u2192 creation of an intermodulation product \u2192 spurious signal in a receive band \u2192 possible degradation of receiver performance.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4413bd78 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"4413bd78\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"4413bd78\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"4413bd78\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"7891ca69\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7891ca69\">Why can PIM become critical in space?<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"5d391a4\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"5d391a4\">The difficulty stems from the considerable gap between the levels involved.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"56651491\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"56651491\">The RF carriers passing through the chain may be at high power, while the PIM product being sought may be <strong>extremely weak<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7c5293e\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7c5293e\">Yet a satellite receiver is designed precisely to receive very low-level signals.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"ab66d47\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"ab66d47\">An intermodulation product that is very weak compared with the transmit carriers can therefore become a problem if it lies within a band used by a sensitive receiver.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1a698a24\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1a698a24\">This is why PIM is a particularly important issue when a system combines:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"33992832\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"33992832\"><strong>high transmit power + multiple carriers + sensitive receivers + dense RF integration.<\/strong><\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"2885fbd1\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2885fbd1\"><strong>Where does PIM come from?<\/strong><\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1eddbb21\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1eddbb21\">PIM may be promoted in particular by:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"hm-list e-paragraph-base e-default-span\" data-interaction-id=\"2fa4fce8\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2fa4fce8\"><ul><li>imperfect electrical contacts<\/li><li>connectors or assemblies with poor contact quality<\/li><li>interfaces between different materials<\/li><li>surface finishes<\/li><li>oxidation or contamination<\/li><li>certain metal junctions<\/li><li>mechanical or tightening defects<\/li><li>more generally, any unintentional non-linearity in the RF path or its environment.<\/li><\/ul><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"5a70c086\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"5a70c086\">Controlling PIM is therefore not solely a matter of electronic design. It also depends on the connectors, mechanics, materials, assembly and build quality of the RF system<strong>.<\/strong><\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-12442c9f e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"12442c9f\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"12442c9f\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"12442c9f\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"1e7b37c6\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1e7b37c6\">Measuring PIM: a particularly demanding measurement chain<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4675b965\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4675b965\"><strong>Example: <\/strong>architecture of a high-power PIM test bench:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"5f61f5d6\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"5f61f5d6\">Take the case of an RF or microwave unit intended for a satellite payload and required to operate simultaneously with two high-power carriers.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"27344d4b\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"27344d4b\">To characterise its PIM level, the bench may include two RF generation paths, each associated with an RF or microwave power amplifier. The two amplified carriers are then combined and injected into the equipment under test.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1310c62f\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1310c62f\">The architecture can be represented simply:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"73dafdd3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"73dafdd3\"><strong>Generator f1 \u2192 power amplifier \u2510<\/strong><br>\u251c\u2192 combining \/ filtering \u2192 EUT \u2192 filtering \u2192 low-level reception<br><strong>Generator f2 \u2192 power amplifier \u2518<\/strong><\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"16ac643\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"16ac643\">The amplifiers make it possible to reproduce the power levels actually encountered by the unit. But they also introduce a difficulty: the bench must guarantee that the intermodulation products measured genuinely come from the EUT and not from the amplifiers or other elements in the chain.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"3941dbe5\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"3941dbe5\">The harmonics and intermodulation products generated by the sources and amplifiers must therefore be very carefully controlled, with sufficient filtering and isolation between the different paths.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"239e8d1b\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"239e8d1b\">After the EUT, a selective receive chain is used to search for the PIM product at the expected frequency, for example for a third-order product:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"42a98da3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"42a98da3\">fPIM = 2f1 \u2212 f2 or fPIM = 2f2 \u2212 f1<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"2a983701\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2a983701\">The challenge is then to detect an extremely weak spurious signal in the presence of much more powerful carriers. The dynamic range of the measurement system, filtering and isolation therefore become decisive.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"3e5b59b8\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"3e5b59b8\">The bench itself must have very low PIM<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4ff8cda0\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4ff8cda0\">The amplifiers are only part of the problem. The bench's combiners, filters, couplers, cables, connectors, adapters, loads and mechanical interfaces can themselves contribute to the measured PIM level.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"2b1e557d\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2b1e557d\">Before characterising the EUT, the residual PIM floor of the test bench itself must therefore be known and controlled.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1b19483a\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1b19483a\">The challenge could be summarised as follows:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"6bd8491\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"6bd8491\">Generate two high-power carriers \u2192 combine them without creating significant spurious signals \u2192 stimulate the EUT \u2192 reject the carriers \u2192 measure an extremely weak PIM product.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7612c842\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7612c842\">This is precisely what turns a PIM measurement into an RF\/microwave integration project, rather than a simple measurement made with a spectrum analyser.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3bd4ce8f e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"3bd4ce8f\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"3bd4ce8f\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"3bd4ce8f\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"54284c8d\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"54284c8d\">A typical application of the HEMERA RF multi-brand approach<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"524d9291\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"524d9291\">Building such a bench may require combining very different technologies: RF\/microwave generators, power amplifiers, very high-rejection filters, combiners, couplers, low-PIM components, analysers, power sensors and control software.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"e00a0b8\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"e00a0b8\">The choice of amplifiers depends in particular on the frequency band, the power required, linearity and the spectral performance sought. Passive components, for their part, must be rated for the applied power while contributing as little as possible to the bench's residual PIM.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"ebc8eeb\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"ebc8eeb\">PIM measurement poses a fundamental difficulty: the bench must generate high-power carriers while being able to detect extremely weak spurious products.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"bdc4366\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"bdc4366\">The measurement bench must therefore not generate more PIM itself than the equipment being characterised.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"b29bdb5\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"b29bdb5\">A measurement architecture may include, in particular:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"6bdf1b1f\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"6bdf1b1f\">carrier generation \u2192 amplification \u2192 combining and filtering \u2192 equipment under test \u2192 separation\/filtering \u2192 reception and measurement of the PIM product.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"c1c657\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"c1c657\">The bench's cables, connectors, adapters, loads, filters, couplers and other components must offer performance suited to this type of measurement.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"6a4431d8\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"6a4431d8\">The result therefore depends on the performance of the whole chain, not just on the analyser used at the end of it.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4453105c\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4453105c\">This issue illustrates particularly well the value of an integrator's approach: PIM measurement must be treated as a complete RF system.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5627552a e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"5627552a\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"5627552a\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"5627552a\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"519c6572\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"519c6572\">Harmonics, intermodulation and spurious emissions<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"25792841\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"25792841\">PIM is only one of the issues that can affect the RF performance of a payload.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"37f9bc92\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"37f9bc92\">Characterisation may also cover harmonics, active intermodulation products, spurious emissions, noise and other unwanted signals.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"233f38d6\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"233f38d6\">The aim is in particular to verify that a transmit chain does not generate energy likely to degrade another satellite function.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"17a274b8\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"17a274b8\">This analysis requires thinking simultaneously in terms of:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"hm-list e-paragraph-base e-default-span\" data-interaction-id=\"39e19ec2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"39e19ec2\"><ul><li>frequency<\/li><li>power<\/li><li>measurement dynamic range<\/li><li>bandwidth<\/li><li>filtering<\/li><li>isolation<\/li><li>linearity<\/li><li>noise.<\/li><\/ul><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"8dd9ee5\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"8dd9ee5\">This is where EMC, RF and microwave expertise complement one another.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3a86c15 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"3a86c15\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"3a86c15\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"3a86c15\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"17c9636c\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"17c9636c\">Controlling and monitoring the system during testing<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"239790bf\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"239790bf\">As with Defence and Aerospace applications, exposing a unit to a disturbance or performing an RF measurement is not always enough.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"bb23b1\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"bb23b1\">The functional behaviour of the EUT must also be verified during the test.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"6b0b0489\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"6b0b0489\">Depending on the complexity of the equipment, it may be necessary to:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"hm-list e-paragraph-base e-default-span\" data-interaction-id=\"39a28260\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"39a28260\"><ul><li>control different operating modes<\/li><li>drive the interfaces<\/li><li>monitor power supplies<\/li><li>monitor communications<\/li><li>check functional parameters<\/li><li>log events<\/li><li>detect anomalies<\/li><li>synchronise functional data with EMC or RF measurements.<\/li><\/ul><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"17473ee6\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"17473ee6\">For complex systems, automation makes it possible to coordinate instruments, test sequences, data acquisition and EUT monitoring, improving the repeatability and traceability of tests.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6ef15523 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"6ef15523\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"6ef15523\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"6ef15523\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"7bb24b13\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7bb24b13\">From test setup to system validation<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"66cd5136\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"66cd5136\">In space, the requirement therefore goes well beyond choosing a generator, an amplifier or an analyser.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7df6939c\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7df6939c\">Designing the test setup begins with an analysis of:<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"hm-list e-paragraph-base e-default-span\" data-interaction-id=\"981747\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"981747\"><ul><li>programme requirements<\/li><li>the qualification level considered<\/li><li>the frequencies to be covered<\/li><li>the power and levels to be measured<\/li><li>the required dynamic range<\/li><li>the EUT interfaces<\/li><li>the operating modes to be reproduced<\/li><li>the target RF performance<\/li><li>monitoring and automation constraints.<\/li><\/ul><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"432d8970\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"432d8970\">Depending on the application, HEMERA RF can integrate RF and microwave generators, amplifiers, antennas, EMI receivers, analysers, network analysers, power meters, probes, couplers, injection devices, shielded or anechoic chambers, PIM measurement chains and control software.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"2de311c\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2de311c\">The aim is to build a consistent architecture from signal generation through to the acquisition and processing of results.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-61df5329 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"61df5329\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"61df5329\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"61df5329\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"654d9505\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"654d9505\">The HEMERA RF approach to space projects<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"30065130\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"30065130\">HEMERA RF acts as general contractor and multi-brand integrator for the design and delivery of EMC, RF and microwave test facilities.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1869111\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1869111\">This approach is particularly well suited to the space sector, where a single installation may require technologies from highly specialised manufacturers.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"3829748a\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"3829748a\">HEMERA RF can be involved from the technical qualification of the requirement and analysis of the target performance through to sizing, technology sourcing, equipment supply, hardware and software integration, automation, commissioning and metrology follow-up.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"3c6ac8ef\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"3c6ac8ef\">Its independence from any single manufacturer means it can seek the most relevant solution for each function: generation, amplification, low-level measurement, spectrum analysis, antennas, microwave components, PIM, shielding, automation or EUT monitoring.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7fd7eb8\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7fd7eb8\">This ability to combine several technologies is particularly important when high RF power, very low measurement levels and wide frequency coverage have to be reconciled.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-68f820c4 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-content-block \" data-id=\"68f820c4\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"68f820c4\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"68f820c4\">\n    \t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"4e0da6d2\" class=\"hm-h2-content e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4e0da6d2\">Expertise from subassembly to space system validation<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"11328fce\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"11328fce\">HEMERA RF draws on its experience of EMC, RF and microwave environments, with coverage from DC up to 110 GHz, to address the challenges encountered in space applications.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"17fea469\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"17fea469\">This expertise covers the EMC qualification of an electronic unit as well as the characterisation of an RF chain, subsystem integration issues and the electromagnetic interactions encountered at the level of a platform and its payload.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"2683a30\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2683a30\">For telecommunications applications, this approach extends to high power, low receive levels, spurious emissions, harmonics and passive intermodulation (PIM).<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"10457dfa\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"10457dfa\">By combining technical qualification, sourcing from specialised manufacturers, multi-brand integration, automation and metrology, HEMERA RF supports space industry players in delivering high-performance, scalable test facilities tailored to the specific requirements of each programme.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-16de5779 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-section hm-section hm-section-casse \" data-id=\"16de5779\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"16de5779\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"16de5779\">\n    <div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4952578e e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-inner \" data-id=\"4952578e\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"4952578e\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"4952578e\">\n    <div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4139a44b e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div e-25725c5c-83df \" data-id=\"4139a44b\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"4139a44b\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"4139a44b\">\n    <div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-62803d93 e-con e-atomic-element e-flexbox-base e-default-div hm-eyebrow-row \" data-id=\"62803d93\" data-element_type=\"e-flexbox\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-interaction-id=\"62803d93\" data-e-type=\"e-flexbox\" data-id=\"62803d93\">\n    <div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-27ec144e e-con e-atomic-element e-div-block-base e-default-div hm-eyebrow-line \" data-id=\"27ec144e\" data-element_type=\"e-div-block\" data-e-type=\"e-div-block\" data-interaction-id=\"27ec144e\" data-e-type=\"e-div-block\" data-id=\"27ec144e\">\n    \n<\/div>\n\t\t\t<p class=\"hm-eyebrow e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1294082a\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1294082a\">Frequently asked questions<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t<h2 data-interaction-id=\"1d742ac5\" class=\"hm-h2 e-heading-base e-default-h2\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1d742ac5\">Frequently asked questions <br>Space<\/h2>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4cea8ad1 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-base  e-4eb45e6a-9a4c hm-faq-container \" data-id=\"4cea8ad1\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion\" data-interaction-id=\"4cea8ad1\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion\" data-id=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-664221ed e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"664221ed\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"664221ed\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"664221ed\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d7da869 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"d7da869\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"d7da869\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"d7da869\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f19e77f e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"f19e77f\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"f19e77f\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"f19e77f\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"346abc9e\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"346abc9e\">Which EMC standards apply to aerospace and defence?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-21927c28 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"21927c28\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"21927c28\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"21927c28\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"203b5854\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"203b5854\">In aerospace and defence, the standards include:<br>\u2022 RTCA DO-160 for airborne equipment<br>\u2022 its European counterpart, EUROCAE ED-14<br>\u2022 various MIL-STD standards for military applications<br>\u2022 specific requirements for individual programmes and platforms<br>The exact requirements must be identified before sizing the test setup.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2dd22faf e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"2dd22faf\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"2dd22faf\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"2dd22faf\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7d32edf0 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"7d32edf0\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"7d32edf0\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"7d32edf0\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-57eba7d7 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"57eba7d7\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"57eba7d7\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"57eba7d7\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"33c0addf\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"33c0addf\">What is an indirect lightning test?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-57c5640 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"57c5640\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"57c5640\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"57c5640\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"1083b5e7\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1083b5e7\">It reproduces:<br>\u2022 transient voltages<br>\u2022 transient currents<br>\u2022 the disturbances that may be induced in wiring and electronic equipment during a lightning event<br>It concerns induced electrical and electromagnetic effects, not the physical impact of a direct lightning strike on the structure.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3fbe0b43 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"3fbe0b43\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"3fbe0b43\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"3fbe0b43\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-399f1d19 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"399f1d19\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"399f1d19\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"399f1d19\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c70568a e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"c70568a\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"c70568a\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"c70568a\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"2dc23768\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2dc23768\">What is the difference between the direct and indirect effects of lightning?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-59cfc137 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"59cfc137\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"59cfc137\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"59cfc137\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"7d21134c\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7d21134c\">\u2022 Direct effects: the physical consequences of the lightning current on the structure.<br>\u2022 Indirect effects: transient voltages and currents induced in wiring, interfaces and electrical or electronic equipment.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-69e34331 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"69e34331\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"69e34331\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"69e34331\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ee08484 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"ee08484\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"ee08484\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"ee08484\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-64f7f1e8 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"64f7f1e8\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"64f7f1e8\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"64f7f1e8\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"466f23ba\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"466f23ba\">Which standards govern indirect lightning testing in aerospace?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-74bcf85a e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"74bcf85a\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"74bcf85a\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"74bcf85a\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"3592deb8\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"3592deb8\">They include:<br>\u2022 RTCA DO-160 Section 22<br>\u2022 EUROCAE ED-14 Section 22<br>\u2022 other standards or specifications depending on the programme concerned<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7859a1c0 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"7859a1c0\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"7859a1c0\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"7859a1c0\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-153fadb3 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"153fadb3\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"153fadb3\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"153fadb3\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5ac5bdb e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"5ac5bdb\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"5ac5bdb\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"5ac5bdb\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"7c1928e0\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7c1928e0\">What is Section 22 of RTCA DO-160 \/ EUROCAE ED-14?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-18a8604c e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"18a8604c\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"18a8604c\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"18a8604c\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"12997617\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"12997617\">It covers in particular:<br>\u2022 the susceptibility of equipment to lightning-induced transients<br>\u2022 the applicable waveforms<br>\u2022 test levels<br>\u2022 injection methods<br>\u2022 the corresponding qualification categories<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2a2884ae e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"2a2884ae\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"2a2884ae\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"2a2884ae\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-47c1253a e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"47c1253a\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"47c1253a\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"47c1253a\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-10f7695e e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"10f7695e\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"10f7695e\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"10f7695e\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"7857fc77\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7857fc77\">What is the difference between pin injection and cable bundle tests?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-25aebbb8 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"25aebbb8\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"25aebbb8\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"25aebbb8\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"193dcf1e\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"193dcf1e\">Pin injection:<br>\u2022 direct injection of the transient<br>\u2022 applied to pins or interfaces<br>Cable bundle:<br>\u2022 disturbance applied to the harness<br>\u2022 reproduces coupling onto the installation\u2019s cables<br>The generators and injection devices may therefore differ.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-47a66e41 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"47a66e41\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"47a66e41\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"47a66e41\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-31b60f5f e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"31b60f5f\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"31b60f5f\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"31b60f5f\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f6351b0 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"f6351b0\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"f6351b0\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"f6351b0\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"7342cb58\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"7342cb58\">Which waveforms are used for indirect lightning testing?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-174fd37a e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"174fd37a\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"174fd37a\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"174fd37a\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"47d68d4f\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"47d68d4f\">The standard specifies different waveforms depending on:<br>\u2022 the coupling mechanism<br>\u2022 the method<br>\u2022 the qualification category<br>\u2022 the test level<br>\u2022 the interface concerned<br>You therefore need to identify the waveforms to be covered before choosing the generator.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a4996f0 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"a4996f0\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"a4996f0\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"a4996f0\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-67b8079d e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"67b8079d\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"67b8079d\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"67b8079d\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-752ebd17 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"752ebd17\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"752ebd17\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"752ebd17\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"831d24b\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"831d24b\">What equipment is needed for testing to RTCA DO-160 \/ EUROCAE ED-14 Section 22?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5723d119 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"5723d119\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"5723d119\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"5723d119\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"69c53f49\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"69c53f49\">Depending on the method:<br>\u2022 transient generators<br>\u2022 injection networks<br>\u2022 transformers or couplers<br>\u2022 calibration fixtures<br>\u2022 current probes<br>\u2022 voltage probes<br>\u2022 acquisition instrumentation<br>\u2022 suitable accessories and loads<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5f286538 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"5f286538\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"5f286538\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"5f286538\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-33007a84 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"33007a84\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"33007a84\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"33007a84\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-34906706 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"34906706\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"34906706\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"34906706\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"1592af8a\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"1592af8a\">How are test levels and waveforms chosen under RTCA DO-160 \/ EUROCAE ED-14 Section 22?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2320a1b1 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"2320a1b1\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"2320a1b1\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"2320a1b1\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"58fba1ef\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"58fba1ef\">They depend in particular on:<br>\u2022 the qualification category<br>\u2022 the equipment<br>\u2022 its installation<br>\u2022 the interfaces<br>\u2022 programme requirements<br>The choice should therefore not be dictated solely by the capabilities of the available generator.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-35038dc7 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"35038dc7\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"35038dc7\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"35038dc7\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-23ace35b e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"23ace35b\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"23ace35b\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"23ace35b\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7fb61f5e e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"7fb61f5e\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"7fb61f5e\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"7fb61f5e\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"c3ba29f\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"c3ba29f\">How can the injected current or voltage be measured and monitored during the test?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3baf9904 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"3baf9904\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"3baf9904\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"3baf9904\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"2ca5f177\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2ca5f177\">The measurement chain may include:<br>\u2022 current probe<br>\u2022 voltage probe<br>\u2022 suitable attenuation<br>\u2022 appropriate cabling<br>\u2022 oscilloscope or high-speed acquisition system<br>The bandwidth and dynamic range of the whole chain must be checked to ensure the measured transient is reproduced accurately.<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-75f773c5 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"75f773c5\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"75f773c5\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"75f773c5\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-407fd15d e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"407fd15d\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"407fd15d\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"407fd15d\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-70c4e19e e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"70c4e19e\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"70c4e19e\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"70c4e19e\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"2c7cd957\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"2c7cd957\">How do you size a lightning test bench for aerospace equipment?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4cb4f056 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"4cb4f056\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"4cb4f056\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"4cb4f056\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"4a1587ca\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"4a1587ca\">You need to determine:<br>\u2022 the standard<br>\u2022 the category<br>\u2022 the waveforms<br>\u2022 the levels<br>\u2022 pin injection \/ cable bundle methods<br>\u2022 harness characteristics<br>\u2022 the equipment to be tested<br>\u2022 measurement and calibration needs<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-405e8538 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-base  hm-faq-item \" data-id=\"405e8538\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-interaction-id=\"405e8538\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item\" data-id=\"405e8538\"  name=\"4cea8ad1\">\n    <summary class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-77cd57d0 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-header-base  hm-faq-header \" data-id=\"77cd57d0\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-interaction-id=\"77cd57d0\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-header\" data-id=\"77cd57d0\">\n    <span class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-72b10f91 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-title-base  \" data-id=\"72b10f91\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-interaction-id=\"72b10f91\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-title\" data-id=\"72b10f91\">\n    \t\t\t<h3 data-interaction-id=\"51ca63f3\" class=\"hm-faq-q e-heading-base e-default-h3\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"51ca63f3\">What are the CS114, CS115 and CS116 tests?<\/h3>\n\t\t\n<\/span>\n\n<\/summary>\n<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1a1a1274 e-con e-atomic-element e-accordion-item-content-base  hm-faq-content \" data-id=\"1a1a1274\" data-element_type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-interaction-id=\"1a1a1274\" data-e-type=\"e-accordion-item-content\" data-id=\"1a1a1274\">\n    \t\t\t<p class=\"hm-body e-paragraph-base e-default-p\" data-interaction-id=\"32a73e47\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-id=\"32a73e47\">These methods correspond to different types of conducted susceptibility in the military domain.<br>They differ in particular in:<br>\u2022 the type of signal<br>\u2022 the frequency range<br>\u2022 the coupling mode<br>\u2022 the levels<br>\u2022 the equipment required<\/p>\n\t\t\n<\/div>\n\n<\/details>\n\n<\/div>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\">{\"@context\":\"https:\\\/\\\/schema.org\",\"@type\":\"FAQPage\",\"mainEntity\":[{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Which EMC standards apply to aerospace and defence?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"In aerospace and defence, the standards include: \\u2022 RTCA DO-160 for airborne equipment \\u2022 its European counterpart, EUROCAE ED-14 \\u2022 various MIL-STD standards for military applications \\u2022 specific requirements for individual programmes and platforms The exact requirements must be identified before sizing the test setup.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What is an indirect lightning test?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"It reproduces: \\u2022 transient voltages \\u2022 transient currents \\u2022 the disturbances that may be induced in wiring and electronic equipment during a lightning event It concerns induced electrical and electromagnetic effects, not the physical impact of a direct lightning strike on the structure.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What is the difference between the direct and indirect effects of lightning?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"\\u2022 Direct effects: the physical consequences of the lightning current on the structure. \\u2022 Indirect effects: transient voltages and currents induced in wiring, interfaces and electrical or electronic equipment.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Which standards govern indirect lightning testing in aerospace?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"They include: \\u2022 RTCA DO-160 Section 22 \\u2022 EUROCAE ED-14 Section 22 \\u2022 other standards or specifications depending on the programme concerned\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What is Section 22 of RTCA DO-160 \\\/ EUROCAE ED-14?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"It covers in particular: \\u2022 the susceptibility of equipment to lightning-induced transients \\u2022 the applicable waveforms \\u2022 test levels \\u2022 injection methods \\u2022 the corresponding qualification categories\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What is the difference between pin injection and cable bundle tests?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"Pin injection: \\u2022 direct injection of the transient \\u2022 applied to pins or interfaces Cable bundle: \\u2022 disturbance applied to the harness \\u2022 reproduces coupling onto the installation\\u2019s cables The generators and injection devices may therefore differ.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Which waveforms are used for indirect lightning testing?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"The standard specifies different waveforms depending on: \\u2022 the coupling mechanism \\u2022 the method \\u2022 the qualification category \\u2022 the test level \\u2022 the interface concerned You therefore need to identify the waveforms to be covered before choosing the generator.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What equipment is needed for testing to RTCA DO-160 \\\/ EUROCAE ED-14 Section 22?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"Depending on the method: \\u2022 transient generators \\u2022 injection networks \\u2022 transformers or couplers \\u2022 calibration fixtures \\u2022 current probes \\u2022 voltage probes \\u2022 acquisition instrumentation \\u2022 suitable accessories and loads\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"How are test levels and waveforms chosen under RTCA DO-160 \\\/ EUROCAE ED-14 Section 22?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"They depend in particular on: \\u2022 the qualification category \\u2022 the equipment \\u2022 its installation \\u2022 the interfaces \\u2022 programme requirements The choice should therefore not be dictated solely by the capabilities of the available generator.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"How can the injected current or voltage be measured and monitored during the test?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"The measurement chain may include: \\u2022 current probe \\u2022 voltage probe \\u2022 suitable attenuation \\u2022 appropriate cabling \\u2022 oscilloscope or high-speed acquisition system The bandwidth and dynamic range of the whole chain must be checked to ensure the measured transient is reproduced accurately.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"How do you size a lightning test bench for aerospace equipment?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"You need to determine: \\u2022 the standard \\u2022 the category \\u2022 the waveforms \\u2022 the levels \\u2022 pin injection \\\/ cable bundle methods \\u2022 harness characteristics \\u2022 the equipment to be tested \\u2022 measurement and calibration needs\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What are the CS114, CS115 and CS116 tests?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"These methods correspond to different types of conducted susceptibility in the military domain. They differ in particular in: \\u2022 the type of signal \\u2022 the frequency range \\u2022 the coupling mode \\u2022 the levels \\u2022 the equipment required\"}}]}<\/script>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/section>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Table of contents Space EMC and RF: controlling electromagnetic interactions to secure the mission In the space sector, electromagnetic compatibility and control of RF performance are essential to the correct operation of equipment, subsystems, satellites, launchers and payloads. A space system brings together a large number of electronic and radio-frequency units in a highly integrated [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":5,"featured_media":11934,"parent":12127,"menu_order":4,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-12135","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v28.8 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Space - Hemera RF<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hemera-rf.com\/en\/activities\/space\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Space - Hemera RF\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Table of contents Space EMC and RF: controlling electromagnetic interactions to secure the mission In the space sector, electromagnetic compatibility and control of RF performance are essential to the correct operation of equipment, subsystems, satellites, launchers and payloads. 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